Epilogue
From Vembanad Lake: An Inland Voyage
By Pallikonam Rajeev
The Kodoor river is one of Kerala's rivers bearing a cultural history stretching back millennia. Though usually classed as a tributary of the Meenachil, it is, geographically speaking, a river that flows independently. Ordinarily, tributaries lose their own identity once they merge into a larger river. Here, however, the Kodoor — regarded as a tributary of the Meenachil — flows under its own name all the way to its outfall at Pazhukkanila. What's more, the Meenachil, the parent river, itself arrives at Malarikkal only as a small stream and merges into the Kodoor there.
According to the river-basin classification of the Water Resources Department, the areas through which the Kodoor flows are included within the Meenachil river basin.
Several canals connecting the Meenachil and Kodoor rivers, both before and after Kottayam town, have been cut at various points in time. One of these forms part of a traditional waterway that has existed since ancient times, along which people travelled for centuries between Kuravilangad and Changanassery. This connection between the two rivers may have begun after the Kanjikuzhithodu canal was cut from Iranjal to Mangaanam in the fourteenth century, to provide an easier route from Kumaranalloor to Kadamuri.
It was the Puthentode canal, cut around AD 1882 near the Kodimatha stretch of the Kodoor, that later linked the Meenachil and Kodoor rivers. In addition, Meenachil water reached the Kodoor through canals such as the Arathootti–Karapuzha canal and the Pallikkonam–Karapuzha canal, which flow along the western side of Kottayam town.
While Kerala's rivers generally flow westward, the Kodoor initially flows north. However, the streams and channels at its points of origin, arising from the hills of the midland, flow from east to west. The river takes clear shape only once it flows through the flat paddy fields of the midland — and at that point its course runs north. By the time the river's two branches, meeting at Mangaanam, join and flow west to reach Kodoor, the direction has turned south. It is flowing south that the river reaches Pazhukkanila and merges with the Vembanad backwaters.
Some Kerala historians point out that the port-trading town of Koraiyur — mentioned in the writings of first- and second-century scholars Pliny the Elder and Claudius Ptolemy, and in the mariners' handbook the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea — stood at the mouth of the Kodoor river.
In very ancient times, it is said, the Vembanad backwaters extended in the form of a bay all the way to Kottayam, and there is considerable evidence for this. If so, places like Muttambalam, Mangaanam, and Kollad may once have stood along the shores of that bay. The geographical structure of Kuttanad in those days consisted of the shoreline of a bay stretching from Trikkunnapuzha through Niranam, Kadapra, Perunna, Vazhappally, Neelamperoor, Kodoor, Veloor, Olassa, Neendoor, and Kaduthuruthy up to Udayamperoor and Tripunithura, dotted with numerous islands. It was the catastrophic natural disasters of the third century, the tenth century, and AD 1341 that transformed the geological structure of Kerala's coastline. Along with these, repeated flooding deposited the silt continually carried down by the Achankovil, Pamba, Manimala, Kodoor, Meenachil, and Muvattupuzha rivers, so that the bay gradually took on the character of a backwater, its shores receding westward and turning into paddy fields — and with that, the river mouths, too, shifted further west in pursuit of open water.
A shipping channel, believed to have been used by ancient vessels sailing west from Pazhukkanila, where the Kodoor meets the Vembanad backwaters, can still be seen today. Purakkad, called Bakare by Pliny and Ptolemy, was the principal trading port after Muziris (Kodungallur). Ships in the Sangam era must have sailed from there to Kodiyoor and Nelcynda (Nakida) in search of pepper. Since Buddha images have previously been found at Kodimatha and Muttambalam, it can be surmised that Buddhist monks travelling with merchant caravans reached this area, indicating that the region maintained strong outside connections.
As mentioned, the Kodoor has two main tributaries. The southern branch's feeder streams from Karukachal, Perumbanachi, Madappally, and Thengana come together at Cheeranjira. Streams arriving from the east via Nalunnakkal bridge, and another arriving from Thrikkodithanam via Thengana, converge at Cheeranjira. It is said that Brahmins arriving from the north in ancient times travelled to Thrikkodithanam by this waterway. The historical importance Thengana once held, both as a trading centre and as a point where canals converged on the route to Changanassery, is worth further study by students of history.
From Cheeranjira the river flows north through the fields to Ithithanam, where the Chalachirathodu branches off westward, passing the historic Kannamperoor bridge before reaching Vazhappally. Oral tradition has it that the advance of Travancore's army during the Thekkumkur invasion was halted after Chengazhimattam Pothy demolished the Kannamperoor bridge, and that Travancore's forces suffered heavy losses caught in Thekkumkur's battle strategy. Near Vazhappally, the Chalachirathodu joins the Kottayam–Changanassery canal. This waterway was, at one time, an important route for travel from Changanassery town toward the north. The second wave of Nasrani migration from Changanassery to Puthuppally during the Travancore period relied mainly on this waterway. The renowned Ithithanam Bhagavathy Temple stands on the bank of the Chalachirathodu, and the elephant pageant (gajamela) held at Ithithanam has, in recent times, gained considerable popularity.
Flowing north from Ithithanam, the river reaches near Padiyarakadavu, where it splits into two before rejoining — a flat area west of Vakathanam, criss-crossed by channels running through fertile paddy fields.
The Vakathanam canal, flowing in from the east, holds particular historical significance. During the era when Manikandapuram served as the capital of Thekkumkur, the local canal flowing from the Manikandapuram tank and another canal from the western side of Vakathanam joined near Nalloor Kadavu before merging into the Kodoor. Near Nalloor Kadavu stands the Kottaram Bhagavathy Temple, where Cheruvally Bhagavathy — the guardian deity of Thekkumkur — is enshrined. Nalloor Kadavu was likely the boat landing from which river journeys began during the era of royal rule. It is worth noting that this tributary of the Kodoor, flowing past Manikandapuram — which reigned as the capital of the Thekkumkur kingdom, stretching from Aranmula to Kanakkari and from Chotti to Kumarakom, from the twelfth to the fifteenth century — was destined to bear witness to numerous migrations and historical events.
The Puthentode canal, connecting a Kodoor tributary that winds around the Varambinakam fields between Vakathanam and Pathamuttam to the backwater canals further west, was cut during Travancore rule. Though it now lies stagnant and polluted, Puthentode remained navigable until about half a century ago. It passes through Kuzhimattom and Chingavanam before joining the Kottayam–Changanassery canal under the name Kurichithodu.
Once joined by the Vakathanam canal from the east, the Kodoor flows north, passes Velloopparambu Pathiyilkadavu, and flows through the field in front of the Panachikkad temple. It passes under the Ambattukadavu bridge on the Panachikkad–Iravinalloor road and, east of Chozhiyakkadu islet, heads toward Kollad. It was at Chozhiyakkadu that the Malamelkkavu community of Tamil Brahmins settled together — Brahmins brought in by order of the Thekkumkur royals to handle cooking duties for the rites performed by the Namboothiri Brahmins at Kadamuri and the feasts at Manikandapuram. This place name derives from these Ayyar Brahmins of the Chola kingdom, known as Chozhiyapattar. Today, this community has left the area.
Past Parayakkal Kadavu east of Kollad, the river flows north and meets, at Moonnattumukku, the eastern branch of the Kodoor arriving from Puthuppally.
The eastern branch originates from springs in the southeastern parts of Vennimala. The easternmost source arises at Varumala in Pampady, flowing as a stream past Kuruthikamankavu at Thottakkad. The higher-altitude springs of the eastern branch come from Vennimala itself. The sacred spring known as Lakshmana Theertham at Vennimala is traditionally regarded as the true source of the Kodoor — that is, the highest-altitude source at the river's point of origin. Small streams from the Meenadam–Thakidi areas join to form the Meenadam canal, which passes under the Kaithepalam bridge to reach Kottaram Kadavu at Thrikkothamangalam. Near Kaithepalam stands the renowned Punchamon Mana, the home of Punchamon Pothy, who is mentioned in the legend of Kadamattathu Kathanar. In the foundation of this illam — a fine example of traditional architecture — the royal emblems of Thekkumkur and Travancore are carved in stone on the left and right respectively: a roaring standing lion for Thekkumkur, and an elephant and conch for Travancore. The Punchamon family is said to have traditionally practised sattvic sorcery (benevolent ritual magic). After crossing the Kaithayil bridge, the river flows west through Erikkad, on whose banks stands the well-known Erikkad Bhagavathy Temple.
The Kottaram Kadavu, where the Kodoor arrives, also carries great historical significance. The country road mentioned in the Unnuneeli Sandesam passes through Manikandapuram and Kadamuri and ends at Kottaram Kadavu, after which the journey continues by boat up to Paloor Kadavu, and then onward toward Thiruvanchoor — though historians hold differing views on this point. A canal runs from Kadamuri to Kottaram Kadavu, likely used for travel since the era of Brahmin migration from the north; its condition today, too, is regrettable. This canal joins the Kodoor near the Kottaram Shiva Temple. It is said that a palace of the Thekkumkur kings once stood here as well; the Shiva temple that belonged to that palace still exists today. Situated at equal distance from Vennimala and Manikandapuram, Kottaram Kadavu may have held considerable importance during the era of local chieftaincies.
Another canal, connecting Kottaram Kadavu westward to the southern branch of the Kodoor, also exists. The Kodoor flows north, passing in front of St. George's Church, Puthuppally, headed toward Moonnattumukku.
Puthuppally Church, one of the principal churches of the Syrian Orthodox Christians of Kottayam, was established in AD 1750. Before that, around AD 1570, the first church had been established on the eastern slope of the Iravinalloor market. The church seen today, with later renovations, was rebuilt under the leadership of Ancherry Punnoose Mappila, a military commander of Thekkumkur.
It was the Puthuppally market of the Thekkumkur era that led to this area developing into a settlement. During the era when Vennimala served as the capital, Puthuppally market was, alongside Thazhathangadi, another market of commercial importance in Thekkumkur. Chettys and Konkanis travelled from Purakkad through the Vembanad backwaters, up the Kodoor, to trade at Puthuppally market. There is evidence that several families from the Ambalappuzha area settled in the Eramalloor region — further evidence of the trade ties that existed with the Chembakassery kingdom. Puthuppally's trade relationship with Changanassery is likewise well known. These trade connections were carried out via the southern branch of the Kodoor mentioned earlier. It can be reasonably established that the southern branch of the Kodoor also witnessed the second wave of Nasrani migration from Changanassery to Puthuppally during Travancore rule.
Nothing remains today that can be pointed to as remnants of the Puthuppally market — only a settlement sloping down from the hillside into the paddy fields. The new road from in front of the church, hugging the riverbank, leads to Mangaanam Paloorppady.
Flowing through the fields of Eramalloor, the point where the eastern branch joins the southern branch is Moonnattumukku, or the "confluence of three rivers." This is a place where three panchayats meet, surrounded by fields with three islets in the distance: Kollad, in Panachikkad panchayat to the southwest; Iravinalloor, in Puthuppally panchayat to the southeast; and Mangaanam, in Vijayapuram panchayat to the north. The Mundakappadam canal from the east, which forms the boundary between Mangaanam and Puthuppally, also joins at Moonnattumukku. One branch of the Mundakappadam canal, beginning at a spring on the southern slope of Vadavathoor hill, comes from the east and ends near where the road turns off toward Vennimala, close to the Puthuppally–Manarcad road. This canal may well have served as a vital external link during the period when Thekkumkur was based at Vennimala — the shortest route by which one could reach the important junction of Moonnattumukku from Vennimala.
On the northern bank of Moonnattumukku lies Nagapuram Kadavu in Mangaanam. This may be the Paloor Kadavu referred to in Kottarathil Sankunni's Aithihyamala, where the chapter "Vijayadri Mahatmyam," concerning Vennimala, records that Cheraman Perumal, travelling through the Vembanad backwaters, saw the Saptarshis dancing in the eastern sky and, seeking the reason, arrived at Paloor Panicker's landing place. As noted earlier, the route described in the Unnuneeli ends at Kottaram Kadavu, from where the journey continues by boat to Paloor Kadavu.
Past Nagapuram Kadavu, the river's direction shifts westward. As it nears the Mangaanam islet, it curves inward a little. It is here that Nadayil Thodu, a branch of the Kanjikuzhi canal connecting to the Meenanthara river, joins in front of the Mangaanam Narasimhaswamy Temple. Flowing west, the river passes under the Kalathikadavu bridge on the Kollad–Devalokam road, into the Muttambalam area. Just before this, another branch of the Kanjikuzhithodu, the Vadakkenada canal, merges with the Madukkani canal and flows into the Kodoor. Further along, the Kadanchirathodu, arriving from the south from the Kaduvakulam area, joins the river. Past the railway bridge at Muttambalam, the river reaches Erayilkadavu. Skirting the continuous paddy fields of Kodimatha — once part of the backwaters in ancient times — the river flows along the slope of Muttambalam hill and reaches Kodimatha. Historians have also linked Muttambalam with Buddhist connections; it is possible that the ancient town of Kodiyoor extended as far as this area.
The river flows through Kodimatha, on the southern edge of present-day Kottayam town, and turns south. From here on, it flows hugging the edge of the low-lying "karinilam" wetlands that were once part of the Vembanad backwaters. Past Kodimatha, the river becomes considerably wider. The present-day Kottayam boat jetty is located at Kodimatha. A canal of great heritage importance leads north toward Vayaskara — this is the canal to the old boat jetty. It's said that when Mahatma Gandhi arrived at Kottayam by boat in 1935, since it was not yet daybreak, the boat was moored here for two hours while Gandhiji finished his sleep.
From this very promontory, where the Kodoor curves south, a canal runs due west in a straight line — this is Puthentode. It was cut in a straight line from Kodimatha to R-Block by T. Rama Rao, who took charge as Travancore's first Diwan Peshkar in Kottayam in 1879, in order to launch a boat service from Kottayam to Alappuzha. When Puthentode reaches Kanjiram, it crosses the Meenachil river.
Flowing south and widening, the Kodoor passes near the Travancore Cement Factory at Nattakom, curving slightly west before reaching Kottayam's newly established port — currently only partially operational due to certain technical issues. Continuing forward, the river widens further, winds and curves, turns east again and then fully south, and crosses the Nattakom area. West of this winding stretch lies Malarikkal. It is here that one finds the striking contradiction: the main remaining portion of the Meenachil river, arriving weak and depleted from Kanjiram, merges into the Kodoor. In addition, a thin remnant of the Meenachil's original course — which in very ancient times flowed south from Malarikkal directly to Pazhukkanila without joining the Kodoor at all — can still be seen today as a small canal.
To the west of the Malarikkal area lies the Thollayiram paddy field. It was here, on this stretch of the Kodoor, that in AD 1749, Travancore's naval forces, under the command of Eustachius De Lannoy, are said to have defeated Thekkumkur's naval force, the Moosambipada, capturing their specially armed boats.
West of Mariyappally lies the Muttam jetty on the bank of the Kodoor. The Muttam area, too, holds a little-known cultural heritage that deserves further study — one that may perhaps help provide evidence relating to the port of Kodiyoor.
As it flows south, the slopes of Nattakom hill lie to the east, and the Thiruvaikkari paddy fields to the west. These fields once formed the "pandarappattom" crown lands of the Poonjar royal family — possibly granted to them after Travancore came to power; before that, they are said to have belonged to certain other chieftains allied with Thekkumkur.
West of Mariyappally, the Kareethodu, or Kaithathodu, branches off from the river and begins flowing east in parallel. This forms part of the traditional Kottayam–Changanassery waterway. It continues the canal that begins at old Kottayam's Pallikkonam, passing through Thiruvathukkal and Karapuzha before reaching the Kodoor. This was the canal by which the kings of Thekkumkur travelled from their capital at Thalikkotta to the important town of Changanassery (Puzhavathu). With the construction of poorly designed culverts, this canal has today become unnavigable.
Passing west of Karimpinkalakadavu and Pallam Sraambikadavu, the Kodoor flows on and meets the Vembanad backwaters at Pazhukkanila. Since the main flow of the Meenachil joins the Kodoor and arrives here as well, Pazhukkanila is regarded as the outfall point of the Meenachil river too. This is borne out by the local saying, "Dive in at Pala, and you'll surface at Pazhukkanila" — during floods, the bodies of those who drowned in the eastern reaches of the Meenachil would surface at Pazhukkanila on the third day.
Pazhukkanila is the eastern promontory of the Vembanad backwaters. From here, travelling due west, one can pass through H-Block and Marthandam Kayal to reach Vattakayal. Travelling south leads to Neelamperoor, Kainady, and Kainakary. Before Puthentode was cut on the Kottayam–Alappuzha route, cargo boats bound for Alappuzha would travel via Pazhukkanila. A lighthouse-tree — once used to guide boats crossing the Vembanad backwaters toward Kottayam by providing light at night — can still be seen on the eastern shore, where the backwater meets the river. This heritage beacon was established in 1875 by Sir T. Madhava Rao, Diwan of Travancore, in memory of Colonel Munro. Known as the Munro Light, this still-standing, undecayed marker lay dormant for a long period but is now operational again. Apart from the occasional fishing boat passing by, no one else travels through the backwaters at night any more. For nearly a century and a half, the Munro Light guided boats and southbound vessels.
The Kodoor remains relatively free of pollution up until it reaches Kottayam. From Kodimatha to Pazhukkanila, however, it carries the waste that urbanization brings — though this pollution is still less severe than that affecting the Meenachil.
There is considerable potential for backwater tourism centred on Pazhukkanila, R-Block, Malarikkal, and Kodimatha, and it can be hoped that activities encouraging this will emerge in the years ahead.